Door Stop: The Sagas of Icelanders

So, this happened. I took it into my head that I needed to read The Sagas of Icelanders. Why? Well, I actually went to Iceland last summer and enjoyed it immensely. Sure, the sun would set after midnight and then rise again at three in the morning, and the temperature never reached above 55 degrees...in June...but it was truly an incredible place. They also have a tradition of giving each other books on Christmas Eve, and then people spend the rest of the evening reading. Isn't that lovely? It was while I was browsing in one of the Reykjavik Eymundsson bookstores that I first saw a copy of The Sagas of Icelanders. Noting its size and length, I knew that eventually it would be one of my door stops.

Genre, Themes, History: The Sagas of Icelanders is actually a collection of ten sagas and six tales, all telling stories about the Vikings and heroes from long ago who migrated to Iceland and did many famous deeds. A saga is usually a story about ancient Nordic history that tells of early Viking voyages, battles, and feuds between families. Each story is different, usually focusing on one particular person or family, and telling not only their history, but the history of the people immediately surrounding them. For instance, the first saga in the collection, Egil's Saga, naturally focuses on Egil, but the story begins with Egil's grandfather and continues to move down the family line, eventually coming to Egil himself before moving onto his sons as the protagonist ages. It is the longest saga in the collection, but it serves as a great introduction into how the sagas are structured and how the Vikings operated. Throughout the reading of the sagas, it becomes clear that the Vikings were big on honor and reputation, as well as justice, trade, and quite naturally, storytelling. Often the main conflict will come from someone spreading lies and slander, and their target will kill in retaliation, as in The Saga of Ref the Sly. From there, families will seek compensation for the death, which is rarely given, and the conflict continues from there. Other times the hero will be driven to killing someone after having been treated unfairly, but justice will be sought against them, leading them to flee or seek help in an effort to defend themselves. Full of drama, some romance, and even comedy, the sagas show a world that may be far removed from our own, but the themes are still familiar.

My Verdict: It may have taken me awhile to get used to the structure and language, but once I got to the middle of The Saga of the People of Laxardal, which actually focuses on the most famous female protagonist of all sagas, Gudurn Osvifsdottir, I was able to find my own rhythm for reading the stories and was able to enjoy what they had to offer. Just like with any other collection of stories, I had my favorites, and there were characters I cheered for, and others that only caused me to shake my head in disappointment. If there was anything that frustrated me it was the injustices of the justice system the vikings used, or rather the way some managed to exploit and manipulate it to work in their favor. It seemed difficult to receive real justice for a wrong committed, which may have accounted for all of the times the victims sought justice in their own way. Either way, I found myself enjoying the stories by the end and looking forward to each new tale the collection had to offer.

Favorite Saga: The Saga of Ref the Sly is easily my favorite, with Ref the Sly also being my favorite character. Ref is a quiet boy who is initially thought to be useless, but proves to be very skilled in working crafts. Others assume they can easily best him in combat, only to be proven this is not the case once he thoroughly defeats them in battle.   

Recommended Reading: If you're looking for a more modern story that tells the long and complicated history of a family attempting to settle in a new land, I suggest East of Eden by John Steinbeck.   

Door Stop: The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri

For reasons somewhat still a mystery even to myself, I decided to tackle Dante's The Divine Comedy, and in the process I began to understand why most people simply read the Inferno and leave it at that.

The Situation: On the night before Good Friday, a 35 year-old Dante is lost in the woods and is suddenly attacked by a lion, a leopard, and a wolf. He is then rescued by the poet Virgil (of The Aeneid fame) and they begin their journey to and through the underworld, starting with the Inferno, or Hell. Having survived the Inferno, Virgil then continues to lead Dante through Purgatorio, or Purgatory. And naturally, after Purgatory comes Paradiso, or Paradise. But Dante's guide into heaven is no longer the poet Virgil, but instead Beatrice, his ideal woman. And after completing the tour of Paradiso, the epic poem ends with Dante finally understanding the mystery of the humanity and divinity of Christ, and his soul becomes aligned with God's love.

The Problem: Being allowed to take a tour of Paradise is all well and good, but Dante does have to literally go through Hell in order to get there, all ten circles of it. And in order to get out of it and only into Purgatory, Virgil leads Dante as they climb down Satan's form (seriously) in order to escape the last circle. And while going through these ten circles, the still living Dante is witness to the many souls who have found themselves in the various circles of hell, and the punishment they must endure for all eternity. The punishment for every sin has a sort of poetic justice to it, such as flatterers being covered in excrement (seriously) for all eternity. By comparison, going through Purgatory isn't nearly as jarring, even as Dante is taken through those who committed one of the seven deadly sins. There are many moments when Dante, despite Virgil's insistence that he will be fine, fears for his own well-being. But he must trust his leader if he is to make it through this journey and see his beloved Beatrice.

Genre, Themes, History: The Divine Comedy is an epic poem written somewhere between 1308 and 1321. It is also an allegory as it not only goes through three levels of the afterlife, but those levels also represent the journey of the human soul towards God. Inferno is where Dante sees sin for what it really is. Purgatorio is where the love of God, which is pure, is shown to become sinful when it flows through humanity, therefore resulting in the seven deadly sins. And finally, while Inferno and Purgatorio were centered around sin, Paradiso is focused on the four cardinal virtues as well as three theological virtues. The entire poem consists of a total of 14,233 lines divided into the three different parts, which each part containing 33 cantos, sort of like chapters. The number three has a prominent place throughout the poem, and it is even written in tercets according to the rhyme scheme aba, bcb, cdc, ded, etc.

My Verdict: As I mentioned in the introduction, I could easily see why people tend to only read the Inferno. For whatever reason, Purgatorio and Paradiso just aren't that interesting. I can't decide if it is the way they were written, or if it is simply because sins are interesting to human beings, while virtues or even lesser sins are not. Once Dante and Virgil make it past Satan, I found it really hard to continue reading. Ultimately I am glad I did, but it was a struggle. The good news is that it is poetry, so the reading actually goes much faster than it would for most other books more than 500 pages long. The bad news though, is that it is poetry and therefore for someone like me it could be hard to understand. Thankfully, each canto began with a brief summary of what was to follow.

Favorite Moment: When Dante sees the three faces and mouths of Satan, with one mouth containing Judas Iscariot, the disciple that betrayed Jesus, and the other two mouths holding Brutus and Cassius, the men that betrayed Julius Caesar. As one of the few people ever whose favorite Shakespeare play is Julius Caesar, it felt right to me that Brutus and Cassius would have places in Hell next to Judas.

Favorite Character: There are really only three consistent characters throughout the poem, and they are Dante, Virgil, and then Beatrice. Of the three, I choose Virgil, despite how little I care for his Aeneid. He serves as an excellent guide for Dante and is extremely patient throughout the narrator's doubts and fears.

Recommended Reading: I honestly have nothing for this. I would never recommend for anyone to ever read The Aeneid, so that's out. Since I mentioned it, I suppose I'll recommend William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. I've always wanted to become one of those people that can recite Marc Antony's speech from memory, but since Shakespeare can sometimes be even harder to grab onto than The Divine Comedy proved to be,  that process has been extremely slow going. 

Door Stop: Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes

I have finally come back around to doing a door stop, and just like the others, that label fits this week's novel so well due to the book's actual physical size, as well as the density of the content. Don Quixote is long...like David Copperfield long. In fact, it is so long that some of the characters Don Quixote meets in the second part have already read the first part and are well aware of his previous adventures. Yeah...wrap your head around that one for a minute.

The Situation: Alonso Quijano is a retired country gentleman who has spent mass amounts of time reading books about chivalry and knights and adventures and fair maidens needing to be rescued, etc. In fact, he has read so many of these adventures and has amassed such a huge collection that he decides, in his old age, to go out as a knight and find some adventures of his own. He takes to calling himself Don Quixote, renames his lean but loyal horse "Rocinante," puts on some old armor, and takes off to right injustices and help the downtrodden. Eventually he recruits the help of his neighbor and local farmer, Sancho Panza, who serves Don Quixote as his squire for the remander of his adventures. Together they encounter a ridiculous amount of colorful characters and become involved in more than their fair share of adventures.

The Problem: To put it simply, dude is crazy. Really no other explanation for it. Everyone knows it, Don Quixote's family knows, everyone he encounters knows it, even Sancho is aware that not everything his master sees and does and says comes from a sound mind. And while Don Quixote's loose grip on reality (which is only loose when it comes to the subject of chivalry and seeking adventures as a knight) makes for great entertainment for those of us reading from the safety of a 21st century coffee shop, it causes massive problems for those around him. He is out there ruining people's windmills, hurting their flocks, destroying property, and more often than not, getting himself badly hurt in the process. Eventually, Don Quixote's reputation starts to precede him, and some decide to use his lack of sense, and Sancho's lack of head knowledge, against the both of them and play tricks on them for sport. This then begs the question, at what point has this all stopped being funny? At what point does it all become quite serious? And who in this situation, is really the crazy one?

Genre, Themes, History: This door stop is a parody or spoof of the chivalric romances that were popular around Cervantes' time. They are the very same chivalric romances that Don Quixote the character has become obsessed with to the point of lunacy. By having Don Quixote decide to actually act out what he has read in these books, Cervantes is showing how absurd the content found inside these books really is. Metafiction is a major theme as other works are talked about throughout the novel, and later, a published account of the events at the beginning of the book are talked about by various characters, including the dillusional hero. Written in episodic form, while the book is often funny, there are many points in which the tone is quite serious and philosophical. Eventually, closer to the end, it becomes clear that Don Quixote may not be the only unbalanced person in the book.

My Verdict: Like a lot of other door stops, Don Quixote is a slow build, but one with a very high pay off. At first, it is all about the foolish knight and his misguided idea, which actually has the potential to become very boring very quickly (and it does), but then the knight is joined by Sancho, and they then continue to meet various characters with various histories and stories of heartbreak and injustice. While Don Quixote remains the primary focus, it isn't necessarily all about him. In this way, the episodic format works well, and the diversions are welcome as opposed to annoying. And the book gradually brings itself together the closer it gets to the end of the story.

Favorite Moment: When Sancho is made a pretend governor (although he believes it is real) over a pretend island, he proves to actually be an incredibly competent and wise leader, despite the fact that it is all a massive joke to prove just how inept he is.

Favorite Character: I would have to go with Sancho, the squire. He is full of so many proverbs and wise sayings that they spill out of his mouth pretty much any time he speaks, much to the annoyance of his master, Don Quixote. But every once in awhile he hits upon one that is extremely profound and proves he is to possibly be the wisest person in the room.

Recommended Reading: I expect very few people to take this advice to heart, but given the format of Don Quixote and its stories of chivalry, I will recommend Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. Some of the tales are indeed extremely cumbersome and boring, but others are actually pretty entertaining. Naturally, I recommend only a Modern English translation...don't try to be a hero with the Middle English stuff... 

Optional Poet: John Milton

That is right, I chose this stuff, and it may end up being my undoing. So I have decided that in order to keep this post at a readable length, instead of going through the usual categories of genre, theme, and history, and then doing a small blurb on each separate poem, instead I will just go through each poem (or essay) separately in chronological order and cover everything that way.

On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity

Genre: Nativity ode connecting the Incarnation (when Mary was informed by the angel that she would bear the Messiah), and the Crucifixion.
Themes: Christ’s nativity and his crucifixion. Christ becomes human and then later redeems humanity in his crucifixion. Also, the poem deals with Christ’s overthrow of earthly and pagan powers.
History: Written in 1629 and published in 1645. Not his first work but often put first in collections and anthologies.

L’Allegro

Genre: Pastoral poem - the author places the complex life into a simple one.
Theme: The poem is of course paired with the contrasting poem Il Penseroso. L’Allegro is Italian for “the happy man,” Il Penseroso is Italian for “the melancholy man.” This poem is playful and set in a pastoral scene where the character connects with folk stories and fairy tales as well as comedic plays. There is an emphasis on the active and cheerful life. Mirth, one of the graces, is invoked and is connected to poetry within Renaissance literature.
History: Scholars really aren’t sure when this was written, but it was published in 1645 in the first collection.

Il Penseroso

Genre: A vision of poetic melancholy and a companion poem to L’Allegro.
Themes: Instead of wandering through a pastoral scene, the main character is wanders through an urban environment while the poem emphasizes a solitary and scholarly lifestyle. The main character focuses his studies on philosophy, allegory, tragedy, Classical hymns, and Christian hymns. Melancholy is invoked and there is an emphasis on experience and the understanding of nature. It seems to be hinted that because the main character in this poem is allowed to see more than the one in L’Allegro, he isn’t as blindly happy.
History: Just like with L’Allegro, scholars are not sure when this poem was written, but it was published in 1645.

A Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle [Comus]

Genre: Masque – festive courtly entertainment. A masque usually involved music, dancing, singing, and acting, all with an elaborate stage design.
Themes: Milton wrote this masque in honor of chastity. Basically there is this poor girl kidnapped by a debauched Comus who tries to get her to drink some liquid that would overpower her (get her drunk) and allow him to ravish her, but she argues for temperance and chastity. She holds up her argument while her brother eventually find someone who can help her, chase off and Comus, and free her from his house. In this, Milton uses the Lady to assert his belief in the individual free will, while Comus attempts to argue that the base appetites and desires of humans are natural. The Lady continually argues that only rational self-control is enlightened and virtuous.
History: The masque was first presented on Michaelmas in 1634, and was published in 1645. It was written to celebrate the appointment of Lord Bridgewater to the post of Lord President of Wales. Bridgewater’s own children were the principal actors in the masque.

Areopagitica

Genre: A speech or prose polemical tract – an argument made against one opinion, doctrine, or person. Here, Milton is arguing against pre-publication censorship and arguing for freedom of speech.
Themes: Free speech, individual rights, freedom to read and decide for yourself what is right and good for you…no one should be deciding that for you. Now, it is important to note that Milton was all about this freedom for white educated Protestant males. Also, he was not making the argument for any Atheist or Catholic publications. So really, branding this an argument against censorship is a bit short-sighted in the grand scheme of things. Also, many biblical references abound. As many as they are, they actually did help me see his point more clearly. But this is a long essay…definitely the longest work listed on this page.
History: Written in 1644 at the height of the English Civil War.

Lycidas

Genre: Pastoral elegy – a mournful and melancholy poem. Also be a funeral song or lament for the dead.
Themes: The poem was written in memory of Milton’s friend, Edward King, who died when his ship sank in the Irish Sea off the coast of Wales in August of 1637. The poem starts off in a pastoral scene, but even the scene cannot stop the poet from lamenting his friend, Lycidas. The poet then begins to recall his adventures with Lycidas and attempts to juxtapose remembering his life with the awful even of his death.
History: Lycidas is one of the poems in the 1645 collection that was actually written in English as opposed to Greek and Latin.

How Soon Hath Time

Genre: Sonnet – “little song” or “little sound.” Sonnets usually contain 14 lines (and this one does as well), and most sonnets stick to a certain rhyme, but then there are many variations. For instance, Shakespeare, Donne, and Spenser all do their own thing with their sonnets.
Themes: All three sonnets that I will be covering seem to have a general sense of regret in them. With this one, either his 23rd year has snuck up on him, or it has already passed and gone. Either way, he is a bit shocked and not quite sure what to do. And while he feels he should do something, he doesn’t think he is quite ready “And inward ripeness doth much less appear.”
History: It was published in 1645 with the rest of the above but I cannot for the life of me figure out when it was written.

When I Consider How My Light Is Spent

Genre: Sonnet
Themes: Written after Milton has lost his sight. In the poem he seems to come to terms with the idea that while he can no longer write, due to his loss of sight, he can still serve his maker (God) and glorify Him as God does not need “man’s work or his own gifts.” Milton finally asserts that “They also serve who only stand and wait.” There is heavy use of the word “light,” and more than one mention of waiting and patience.
History: It has been dated as having been written in 1655 and was published in 1673. As I mentioned, this was written after Milton lost his eye sight, essentially for his work. And now he realizes that in the end, works aren’t important.

Methought I Saw My Late Espoused Saint

Genre: Sonnet
Themes: Written after the death of his second wife, and also after he has lost his sight, so the idea of him seeing his second wife makes for an interesting image. Once again, more references to vision (or a lack thereof), and the last line actually makes me extremely sad. When people wake up it is usually to daylight, but because of Milton’s blindness, he was able to see clear as day in his dreams and then wakes up only to darkness.
History: Milton’s second wife, Katherine, dies after giving birth to their daughter, and soon afterwards, the baby dies as well. It was written around 1656.

Samson Agonistes

Genre: Tragic Closet Drama – written as a play but not meant to ever be performed live before an audience. Many people die.
Themes: At the beginning of the play, Samson is blind and in prison. The whole mess with his hair being cut and Delilah being awful to him is done and gone. At this point he has come to terms with his fate and realizes he has brought them all upon himself. As his hair grows back, he is summoned to come before the Philistines where he redeems himself by making the ultimate sacrifice – killing him while also killing the Philistines by taking down the pillars in the building. There is more reiteration of Milton’s belief in individual free choice, therefore causing Samson to blame no one but himself, with the occasional remarks made about Delilah.
History: This was actually my favorite work of Milton’s that I have read and I can see the links between this story and Milton’s own life. When this was written, Milton had also gone blind and would actually also be imprisoned for a short-time, but most likely took place after he wrote this, but before it was published. From this story, it would seem that Milton also felt that he lost his sight due to his own doing and mistakes and was resigned to his fate, but also looking for a chance to redeem himself. And while Samson committed his greatest act after his downfall, Milton wrote what have been argues as his best works after he lost his sight and the Revolution he supported had failed. It was most likely written in the 1640s or 1650s. Milton temporarily gave up his poetic career to work for Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth government. He continued this despite his failing eyesight and there are no questions that he knew his eyesight was failing him. Short version: He supported the execution of Charles I, praised Oliver Cromwell as the Protectorate was set up, but later had reservations as Cromwell proved to not be as committed as Milton had hoped, the Revolution fails, and Milton is silenced politically when Charles II takes the throne. Oh yeah, and this is the cause he gave his sight for. Yeah…

And it is done! I can’t believe I just did that! And I assure you I will never do it again! Such relief! Such…okay I’ll stop now. I think I’ll try this same format with Wordsworth with maybe a little more history put on at the end. These English poets are tough, but, this is the fate of the English major I guess.

Required Work: The Faerie Queene

Thankfully (and I really cannot stress enough my gratitude for the what I am about to point out), we only have to read all of Book I and Cantos 1, 5-6, and 9-12 of Book III. Seriously, I am so grateful for that fact, I can’t even…there are no words…really.

Genre

Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene is without a doubt an epic poem. It is a long narrative poem dealing with the heroic deeds of several different people, with each book more or less dealing with a specific virtue in relation to a specific knight. This makes the work an allegory as it communicates the message by means of symbolic figures, actions, or symbolic representation – in the most general sense an allegory is an extended metaphor. It was written in praise of Queen Elizabeth I, and therefore found political favor with the Queen and became a success.

It is the first work written in what is now known as Spenserian stanza: each stanza is nine lines long with the first eight being in iambic pentameter and the last being in iambic hexameter (the rhyme scheme of all nine lines is ababbcbcc). I have to say that this formatting really helped me when reading it. Sure, a lot of the language was simply beyond me and I gained a great deal of my understanding of it through context, but the Spenserian stanzas worked better for me than I felt the poem would have if it wasn’t broken up at all (Milton, I am looking in your direction).

Themes

As I already mentioned, each of the six books is a celebration of a different virtue through a corresponding character. Now, the poem is unfinished (that’s right, it was actually supposed to be longer), so the following list does not contain all of the virtues Spenser had wished to cover:

Book I: Holiness
Book II: Temperance
Book III: Chastity
Book IV: Friendship
Book V: Justice
Book VI: Courtesy

In a letter Spenser wrote to Sir Walter Raleigh, it is suggested that Arthur represents the virtue of Magnificence, while the Faerie Queen herself represents Glory. Also, the unfinished seventh book may have been meant for the virtue of constancy.

The poem celebrates and memorializes the Tudor dynasty, of which Queen Elizabeth I was a part, and suggests that the Tudor lineage can be traced back to King Arthur. Also, many prominent Elizabethans were at least partially represented throughout the poem, the most notable of which is Queen Elizabeth I herself as Gloriana, the Faerie Queene. However, the poem also manages to criticize the Tudors as well. In the sixth book Spenser attempts to deal with the issue of the political policy towards Ireland, and in Book I, scholars and critics believe he modeled the character of Lucifera after Queen Elizabeth I. The name alone should tell you that this is not an entirely favorable representation, but Lucifera in The Faerie Queene is a queen who has the Court of Pride that masks a dungeon full of prisoners. The Faerie Queene is overall representative of Elizabethan England, but even with the odd critique, it is mostly a favorable one.

For the purposes of the exam, we are only being asked to deal with Book I and parts of Book III. Book I tells the story of the Redcrosse Knight (for the virtue of Holiness) who ends up learning of his English ancestry (so convenient) and slays the dragon that has laid waste to Eden. He eventually marries Una, who is the representation of the “true church” (get it? The “true church” eventually marries “holiness,” which is found out to have English lineage…). She defeats Duessa, who is supposed to represent the “false church” or Catholicism and/or Mary, Queen of Scots. There is even an ensuing trial that ends in Duessa’s beheading.

Book III tells the story of Britomart (for the virtue of Chastity), a female knight who is able to defeat every other knight she encounters due to an enchanted spear she carries with her. She goes on her quest because she has fallen in love with Artegal, the champion of Justice. He is the only knight who defeats Britomart, and after seeing her beauty after removing her helmet, he falls in love with her….like you do.

Of course, characters from the Arthurian legends make their appearance, such as Arthur himself and Merlin the magician.

History

Clearly, Spenser would have had to have a very firm grasp not only of English history, but also of Arthurian legend. And he could not have made a better politically than to link his current Queen with the legendary King Arthur.

The Tudors adopted the prophecy, put forth by medieval writer Geoffrey of Monmouth, that the Britons will be restored to power by Arthur. Through Owen Tudor, the Tudors had Welsh blood which they believed made them descendants of Arthur and therefore rightful rulers of Briton. So really, for Spenser to not pick Arthur and use Arthurian legends as sources would have been like passing up the free gift with purchase…I mean who does that?

Now I will take this moment to sing the praises of Amazon.com. On September 1st I ordered The Major Works of William Wordsworth (Oxford) along with another book and still had not received it by September 10th even though the tracking information said it had been delivered. I contacted Amazon through their website and they are resending me both books at no charge, no questions asked, with overnight shipping. Now THAT is service. Of course, that means I now have to read Wordsworth…but even before that, I have to get through Milton.

Required Work: The Blazing World

I didn’t quite know what to expect when I began reading Margaret Cavendish’s The Blazing World; and now that I have read it I still am not exactly sure what has happened. It involves different worlds from our own – some pre-existing, some created – different types of creatures exist in these worlds and their ruler does what she can to make it a utopian society, and then Cavendish herself shows up at one point and…yeah, it all gets to be a bit much for me. So hopefully, I can make some sense of it here.

Genre

This story is part satire, part romance, part adventure, part autobiography, part science fiction, and complete utopian fiction.

My extremely brief version is as follows: A woman is kidnapped by a man who is completely enchanted by her and the ship sails towards the North Pole where the entire crew dies from the cold except for her. Through the North Pole the ship enters a different world of talking animal-like people, who are also so enchanted by the woman’s beauty that they take her to their emperor and he makes her his empress. The new Empress then has all of the animals separated into groups and has them each research different aspects of their world and report back to her. She also asks them various questions about their religion, politics, and how they keep their world peaceful. At some, I’m not sure where, spirits come into play (of the dead and of the living of different worlds) that the Empress is able to communicate with, one of which is Margaret Cavendish. Both the Empress and Cavendish each decide that the power each currently holds in their respective worlds isn’t enough, so they attempt to create their own worlds to govern. From what I could tell, this project is eventually abandoned and Cavendish expresses her desire for other countries of her world to submit to the country she is from (which appears to be England). The Empress agrees to use her world’s resources to help invade the other areas so that they submit to England. The invasion is successful, the Empress and Cavendish eventually part ways, and the story ends in what I assume to be a “happily ever after” type ending. Weird, wild stuff.

Themes

Since this is utopian fiction, the central theme appears to be one of maintaining peaceful control of one’s country/realm/world/whatever. In the beginning, the Empress is very interested in how the world she had been brought to is governed and how things are decided and how the people practice their religion, all while maintaining peace and avoiding a revolt. The Empress herself employs different methods of maintaining peace while still holding onto her control. The balance between having subjects that obey you out of fear and subjects that obey out of love is brought up at several points, and the Empress often employed the first to get the people’s initial obedience, and then she would move into the latter.

The focus then seems to shift from peaceful control to simply more control under one ruler. Both the Empress and the Duchess (Cavendish) take on attempting to make their own worlds to control; worlds that they can first create to their liking and then rule as they please. The story ends with a battle to help England, although it is not called England in the story, subdue surrounding countries under the English monarchy. The Empress agrees to come to the world of the Duchess and help her country achieve this goal. Many times throughout the battle, the Duchess will first attempt to get other countries to submit without and destruction of property or loss of lives, and if that fails, she would then move on to destroying small pieces of land, before moving onto bigger areas and cities. In the end, the Empress, Duchess, and all of England comes out victorious, and the Empress returns to her world.

Throughout the story, there is very little action compared to the conversations that take place between characters. Most of these conversations involve the Empress in some way, and it isn’t the usual kind of dialogue that we would be used to in a typical piece of fiction. These are conversations (and quite involved ones) about government, religion, science, philosophy, etc. There is lots of debating not only between the Empress and whoever she is talking to, but also some debate between different groups within her world. And because of the arguments that ensue between the different groups, the Empress will threaten to take away their means of research (telescopes and such) and destroy them so that they never have reason to argue and fight again. Overall, the Empress is concerned with maintaining both peace and control.

History

Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, was an aristocrat, writer, and scientist. She wrote poetry, philosophy, prose romances, essays, and plays. She published her writing under her own name in a time when most women writers were publishing anonymously. She addresses multiple topics ranging from gender, manners, and power; to science and philosophy; to animals and animal protection. The Blazing World is also thought to be one of the first examples of science fiction. Some critics suggest that she was full of herself, possibly because of her assertion in her epilogue to The Blazing World that she was the Empress to the philosophical world. Yeah, I guess that is pretty ballsy of her…

Now I will commence psyching myself out for William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury. For me, it is on the same scale as Moby Dick even though it isn’t as long and is much more enjoyable. But it is dense, and half the time you have no clue what is going on.

Required Work: The Rover

I honestly thought I had gone over all of the plays on the list already, but turns out, Aphra Behn’s The Rover is also a play. This is what happens when you don’t look into the literature before you try to dive right in.

Genre

The Rover is considered to be a Restoration Comedy – meaning it was performed in stage between the years of 1660 and 1710. For the 18 years before 1660, the Puritans had banned public stage performances. So at the re-opening of the theaters in 1660, there was a significant resurgence of English drama, with the comedies being notorious for their sexual explicitness. Crowds also enjoyed the topical references and inter-twining plots, both of which are heavily featured in The Rover.

Themes

For me, the general over-arching theme seems to be the English vs. the Spanish. People get in fights, blood is drawn, people are put in prison…sometimes the Spanish are fighting amongst themselves, and the same is often true of the English, and it is mostly all over the love (or lust) of a woman. The main issue here is that Belvile, an English Colonel, is in love with Florinda, the sister of Don Pedro, a noble Spaniard. While Florinda reciprocates Belvile’s feelings, both Don Pedro and his father prefer that Florinda marry Don Antonio. The secondary plot centers on the womanizing Willmore, the Rover, and his pursuits of Angellica, a beautiful and rich widow, and Hellena, sister to Florinda, who is supposed to be a nun. Willmore finds himself in trouble with not only Angelica, who soon realizes that he is not the type to remain faithful, but also with his friend Belvile due to Willmore’s inability to keep himself out of trouble and follow through on the most simple instructions because of his love of women and alcohol. It is difficult to say if there is actually a winner between the Spanish and English as almost all of the conflicts appear to be resolved in the end and most of the principle characters end up married off or appeased in one way or another. However, Behn was known for including politics in her work, so these feuds between the Spanish and English were not included on accident.

Most of (but not all) of the bawdy talk and sexual explicitness comes from Willmore as he expresses his views on women and shamelessly pursues him. There are also multiple scenes in which some of the women are in situations where they could be raped. In one scene, Blunt is ready to take advantage of any woman who comes near him as an act of revenge on another woman whom he believed to be in love with him, but turned out to be a thief and a prostitute. Florinda walks into his presence at just the wrong moment, but thankfully is saved by Belvile and with the help of Frederick. Also, as you can probably already tell, the plot of this play is pretty intricate and everyone’s plot line interweaves with everyone else’s. Audiences of Behn’s time would have loved this.

History

As I already mentioned, this play was written during the Restoration period for English drama. Behn was known for treating any Puritan characters in her plays harshly, and was also not very friendly toward the Dutch either. Before becoming a playwright, Behn was a spy for Charles II against the Dutch. Unfortunately for Behn, then King was slow to pay her, and he may not have at all, so she tried making money with her writing. Behn was able to make a good deal amount of money from the long run of The Rover.

The play’s subtitle, “Banish’d Cavaliers,” refers to the exiled Cavalier forces during the parliamentary and military rule after the English Civil War. Behn based her play on Thomas Killigrew’s Thomaso, or The Wanderer. It is said the Charles II loved the play and was actually very much in favor of sexual references in the dramas of the Restoration period. Willmore also proved to be a popular character, so Behn did a sequel four years later.

As promised I should be able to tackle Margaret Cavendish’s The Blazing World next week. I might (and the operative word here is “might”) also finally bite the bullet and cover William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury. I have actually read this book twice already and enjoy it a great deal, I just haven’t been able to get up the courage to try to talk about it and explore into such detail as this test will require. However, ignoring it isn’t going to make it go away…

Required Work: Oroonoko

I guess when I said I would be done with slave narratives as far as the list is concerned, I wasn’t exactly telling the truth since Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko does tell the story of a man who is African royalty by birth but is captured and brought over to the West Indies as a slave. The main difference between this story and the actual slave narratives I have covered is that this one is a work of fiction and Oroonoko could represent several different people.

Genre

I would be willing to call this a slave narrative if it wasn’t for the whole fictional part of it…which all of it is. Behn was a political writer of fiction, and while this isn’t really a book about the evils of slavery (another thing that distinguishes it from actual slave narratives), Behn was concerned about the issues of natural kingship and the idea that in order for a place to thrive it needs a strong ruler.

The story could be considered as Restoration literature, as at least half of it takes place in the New World, there are elements of courtly romance between Oroonoko and Imoinda, and it contains a great deal of the heroic tragedy. Both Oroonoko and Imoinda are separately captured and taken to Surinam in the West Indies to be slaves. Before this, Behn tells of the courtship between Oroonoko and Imoinda that takes place before she is summoned to be part of the king’s Otan (a.k.a. harem). Oh yeah, and the king is Oroonoko’s grandfather (awkward!). Only after they are both captured and brought to the New World separately and reunited are they then able to be together. But they are only able to be together as slaves, and not in their previous royal splendor.

The great tragedy of the story is not just in the fact that Oroonoko was of noble African blood and dies as a slave in a land far from home. The tragedy is also in how he died and what he had to go through to even get to that point. Behn writes the story almost as a tribute to him and his noble character. Not only did this man of noble African blood die a slave, but he did so after attempting to lead an eventually unsuccessful slave revolt, and killing a very pregnant Imoinda (she begged for it...after he suggested it) before making a planned attempt on his own life. However, he is ultimately dismembered in one of the most gruesome death scenes I have ever read. Needless to say, he does not die with the dignity that Behn felt someone like him deserved.

Themes

One of the more notable features of the novel is Oroonoko’s continuous insistence on the sacred nature of a king’s word and how a king should never betray his oaths. The work is also noticeably anti-Dutch and anti-democratic as Behn believed in monarchy, and was a former spy for Charles II against the Dutch. Also the dominant male leaders of the story are often accompanied by strong female companions. Imoinda, being the best example, is supportive of all of Oroonoko’s decisions, even the one that includes him killing her so that she and her unborn child may escape the bonds of slavery. Also, Imoinda fights by Oroonoko’s side while other women in the story urge their counterparts to surrender.

Several times throughout the story, the features of both Oroonoko and Imoinda are described as European and that both have a definite presence about them. The beauty of Imoinda incites love and lust in all men, white or black, and Oroonoko’s appearance causing almost everyone to see him as a man of leadership. Even though their skin is still dark, their European features give them favor with almost everyone.

Something that stood out to me throughout the whole story, and somewhat bothered me, was the narrative voice. It is a strange cross between third person omniscient and first person, as the narrator could not have been present for absolutely everything Oroonoko went through in order for it to be truly first-person, yet they cannot be completely omniscient as they identify themselves as someone who knew Oroonoko while he was a slave in the West Indies. Also, often while in the middle of describing some of the atrocities that befall Oroonoko, the narrator will begin validate their own lack if involvement in any attempts to help his situation, or explain away any guilt they may be feeling, or any guilt that reader would want to assign to them. Scholars have gone back and forth since the story was written in attempts to figure out if the narrator is supposed to be Behn herself. There are some signs that say yes, and then there are other factual details about the narrator’s life that do not line up with Behn’s. Other scholars attempt to go even further and figure out whether Behn had ever been to the area in which Oroonoko served as a slave, or whether she took accounts and descriptions from others and used them in her own story. But of course, some of her descriptions are just too spot on for other scholars to ignore.

History

The years 1688 was a time of serious political conflict in England as Charles II had died and James II, who purported Roman Catholicism, had come into power. Oroonoko’s constant reiteration of the sacredness of a king’s word and how it will always be kept had to have struck a chord with those who were suddenly looking for a way to get a new king. Behn was very big on loyalty to the throne and felt that the loss of a king only hurt the country he ruled. This may have been closer to the point Behn was trying to make as opposed to making an attack on slavery, which is what many scholars and critics have wanted to believe the story is about. Most likely, Behn was not necessarily against slavery; otherwise she would not have married a slave trader.

There were numerous slave revolts in the English colonies lead by Coromantin slaves, and Oroonoko is described as being from “Coromantien.” Oroonoko could be representative of the many slaves who have revolted. There were also revolts led by indentured servants, and there is one case of a white man who made a plot very similar to Oroonoko’s and ended up taking his own life while in prison for his attempt.

This is also one of those stories that people have claimed was the first English novel, but as usual, such a claim is hard to sustain. I will probably always think of Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones whenever I hear the phrase “first English novel.” I have a hard time calling Oroonoko a novel in general only because it is so short…not that I am complaining about the length, because I am so not.

Next post will be Behn’s bawdy play The Rover, and hopefully after that I will be able to tackle Margaret Cavendish’s The Blazing World.

Optional Play: Doctor Faustus

This play is twisted…and also kind of sad. But more twisted than anything else. Bottom line: the play is about a man’s decision to sell his soul to the devil for a slightly better life here on earth and the natural consequence that comes from such a decision. Devils (yes, plural) show up; the seven deadly sins make an appearance; there is a good angel, but unfortunately everything he says is always immediately refuted by the bad angel. Because of Dr. Faustus’ desire for knowledge and his own personal demon helper, the play ends the only way it can. And the reader can’t make any mistake about it – Faustus did it to himself.

Genre

While the play is often referred to as simply Dr. Faustus, the full title is The Tragicall History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus. And it is indeed quite tragic. Probably what makes it so tragic is not necessarily the fact the Faustus sold his soul to the devil for talents and knowledge that he eventually wasted (although that is sad), what makes it worse is the multiple opportunities he has to repent and save himself and he neglected to do so. For some reason it reminds me of something Mr. Burns from The Simpsons said (yes I am going there):

Homer: Mr. Burns, you’re the richest man I know.
Burns: Yes, but I’d trade it all for a little more.

You get the idea (kind of)…Enough would have never been enough for this guy, even at the price of his own eternity. Anyway, my point is it is a tragedy.

Themes

Sin, Satanism, death, magic, the eternal battle between good and evil (show mostly through the presence of the good and evil angels that show up to offer their two cents) – all are prominent themed and motifs throughout the play. Also, the type of end that a life spent bound to the devil and separated from God can lead to.

I also like to put the character of Faustus in with other over-zealous literary figures such as Captain Ahab and Victor Frankenstein. All three men flouted all reason (and sometimes the advice of peers) and ruthlessly pursued activities and/or goals that would result in their demise. Much like Captain Ahab, who had already gone up against the white whale once and lost a leg, Faustus had the opportunity of turning back and saving himself, but he felt that he was too far gone to give up what he had started. And like Victor Frankenstein, Faustus is unsatisfied with the amount of scientific knowledge currently available to him and desires to know more than any human possibly could in their lifetime, so he does what he shouldn’t do, and decides to consult with Satan. Also, like Victor Frankenstein, it can be argued that had Faustus known what he was really getting into, he would not have entered into the deal in the first place.

History

Of course, there is immediately going to be a certain amount of controversy surrounding this play, for any time period, because of its themes of Satanism and deals with the devil. But what has caused critics and readers even more trouble is the Calvinist doctrine and the conflicting arguments as to whether or not Marlowe is supporting the ideas of predestination or challenging them. At the tie this play was performed, the idea of predestination was on the rise in England.

For Calvinists, Faustus would represent the absolute worst kind of sinner: one who knew of the heavenly offerings of a life submitted to Christ and rejected it in full knowledge that the complete opposite destination (hell) was the only other option. For Calvinists, Faustus’ fate was not only pre-determined but well deserved. Even though he was baptized earlier in life, he still did not receive salvation because it simply was not meant to be.

For the anti-Calvinists, Faustus simply exercised his free will and decided not to accept Christ’s salvation, but instead accepted Satan’s eternal damnation. They argue that, just like anyone else, Faustus was free to choose his own destiny, and he happened to choose poorly. For an anti-Calvinist, the idea that God would choose this fate for Faustus before he was even born is absolutely ghastly. But then I would also like to ask, who in their right mind would choose it for themselves?

There will be no entry next week as I will be on vacation in Chicago. The following week will most likely include a post on Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. I also recently realized that I am running out of weeks before the big day. Fortunately I am also slowly running out of books, but there are still more of them than I have weeks. My solution? I’ll just have to double-up and post more than once a week. It’ll be somewhat painful, but fortunately I have already eliminated all of the monsters and have only short novels and poetry left. Viva life!

Optional Play: The Jew of Malta

This post will probably prove to be somewhat difficult for me since every play I read that was written earlier than the 20th century I end up relating to Shakespeare. Fortunately, that works out pretty well with Christopher Marlowe’s The Jew of Malta as it is considered to have been a major influence on Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice. However, while The Merchant of Venice is more of a tragic comedy, there is not much that is at all funny or humorous about The Jew of Malta.

Genre

My knee-jerk reaction is to call this a tragedy, because almost everyone, including our main character and anti-hero, is dead at the end. But can it really be called a tragedy when the anti-hero was an evil, vengeful, and manipulative old man who would not even think twice about (spoiler alert!) killing his own daughter? I would say no, but then, what would we call it? Oddly enough, Aristotle would have called this a tragedy simply because there is a happy ending, so there you go.

Themes

There is some serious religious conflict going on in this play. At the beginning, in order to pay off a debt to the Turks (who are Muslim), the Christian governor of Malta demands that the debt be paid exclusively by the country’s Jewish population. And because Barabas protested, he has all of his money and property taken as opposed to just a portion of it. When his daughter runs off to be a nun, he then proceeds to poison the entire nunnery, thus all of the nuns and not just his daughter because she became a Christian (and she did so as a reaction to him orchestrating the death of the man she loved). In the end, Barabas first plots with the Turks to take over the city, but as soon as he is named governor, be plots with the Christians to devise a trap to destroy the Turks. While the trap works, the Christians also manage to have Barabas killed as he falls victim to one of his own traps, and then they proceed take hold of the Turkish prince, thus winning the city back for themselves. All in all, while it is tempting to accuse the play of anti-semitism, really none of the religious groups come out holy and blameless.

Also a running theme of revenge, mostly on the side of Barabas, but not exclusively. He seeks revenge against the governor for the seizure of his money and property; against his daughter for her conversion to Christianity; and also against his former servant Ithamore who has turned against him for the love of a prostitute. Of course, his daughters conversion was done as revenge against him for killing the man she loved, and he is killed in the end at the hands of the Christian governor since he first plotted with the enemy Turks to have Malta taken over. And this running theme of revenge fits nicely with another theme of greed. This whole mess starts because Barabas has all of his money and property unfairly seized so that Malta can pay off the Turks without taking money from their Christian inhabitants. Ithamore also falls prey to greed as he is persuaded by his prostitute lover to continually request money from Barabas in exchange for keeping his crimes a secret. Everyone is manipulating someone at some point and while alliances and agreements are made, everyone is ultimately proved to be out for themselves. “There is none righteous, no, not even one.” – Romans 3:10.

History

As I mentioned before, it is believed this play was an influence for Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. At one point Barabas explains his acts of treachery as his attempt to follow the Christian example. Shylock makes a similar speech in The Merchant of Venice (“Hath not a Jew eyes?”) in which he states he is simply doing what any Christian man would do.

Barabas’ name also comes from the thief and murderer “Barabbas” of the New Testament who was released instead of Jesus Christ by Pontius Pilate at the insistence of the crowd.

There has been much debate as to how an Elizabethan audience would have viewed the depiction of Barabas the Jew. The play does leave itself open to accusation of anti-semitism, but as I mentioned before, the characters of other religions don’t necessarily come off as great examples of their faith either. Plus, there are rare (as in extremely rare) instances where the audience can see Barabas’ humanity. However, having him as the main character and the one doing the most scheming and plotting will leave an audience with mixed emotions about his character in relation to his religion.

Next time I will cover the play that led me to choose Christopher Marlowe, and that is The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus. It is the classic tale of a man selling his soul to the devil for power no human should have, and the ultimate (and only) result that comes from a decision like that.

Required Work: Paradise Lost

This is it…this is the last “monster” that was left on my list. I had avoided it all this time but I finally had to face it. I much preferred attacking John Milton’s Paradise Lost at the beginning of summer instead of scrambling to finish it before school starts at the end. And I must say, I was pleasantly surprised. It is still not one of my favorite books and it won’t be one that I’ll read over and over again, but it wasn’t as difficult and tedious as I was expecting, even with my natural aversion to epic poems. The storyline was interesting enough to hold my attention through 400 pages, and not often did I feel like the language was weighing me down. Overall, I am glad I read it, but of course, still sad I couldn’t just enjoy it but now have to pick it apart and be able to discuss it.

Genre

Paradise Lost is for sure an epic poem in blank verse. It is a lengthy narrative poem that deals with the rather serious issue of the fall of man. A work such as Beowulf would be classified as a primary epic (although pinning that work down to any specific genre would be difficult, but it is most commonly seen as an epic), while Paradise Lost, which was written much later, would be known as a literary or secondary epic. And while many of the early epic poems were part of the early oral tradition, epics have been written down at least since the works of Virgil and Dante Alighieri.

Paradise Lost can also be viewed as Milton’s attempt at a Theodicy – a theological study that attempts to justify God’s intrinsic nature of benevolence, omniscience, and omnipotence despite the existence of evil. In Book I Milton states hi wish to “justify the ways of God to men.”

Themes

I suppose the most obvious theme would be that of rebellion against God and its consequences, as not only do Adam and Eve experience this firsthand, but the book starts off with the rebellion of Satan and his followers and what resulted from that. In both instances, the guilty were forced out of their respective paradises never to return.

Throughout the poem Milton incorporates Paganism, classical mythology, and of course, Christianity into the story. He also manages to tackle several difficult theological issues (predestination, the introduction of sin and death into the world, etc.) and even takes on the forever troubling relationship between God’s foresight and free will. Not exactly the most easily conveyed ideas, but somehow Milton makes it work while still telling a story.

Another theme, or at least a good point of discussion, is the relationship between Adam and Eve. In the beginning, before the fall, Milton presents their relationship as one of mutual dependence where neither person is dominant. Adam may be above Eve in intellect and in his relation to God, but Eve also gains knowledge through experience. And neither sees the roles as forced on them, but a requirement for the strength of their relationship. Of course, critics and readers will always end up going with either an Adam-centric or Eve-centric viewpoint, but Milton seems to portray them as pretty equal. They depend upon each other and use their differences to make the relationship work…until they sin against God…then they have a whole other mess to deal with.

Although this doesn’t really qualify as a theme, it is interesting the note the character of Satan as more of an anti-hero than just the “bad guy.” The story really isn’t about him, but he is a main driving force in the plot. Some critics see him as more of a sympathetic character, which is confusing sine Milton is attempting to justify God’s actions. Because of the sympathetic portrayal, critics have argued that Satan’s presence maybe serves as a criticism on the church of Milton’s time.

History

The poem was originally published in 1667 in ten books. A second edition was published in 1674 in 12 books (much like Virgil’s Aeneid) with minor revisions. Milton was blind when the poem was written so it was transcribed by his daughters.

In the 20th century a common interpretation of the work was that Milton was actually more sympathetic towards the devil than he was Adam and Eve. But other critics, such as C.S. Lewis, rejected this interpretation and argue that Paradise Lost simply represents the Biblical scripture on which it was based. Later, Satan starts to be seen less as a hero, and more as a character that starts out as a hero before eventually being reduced to a being that can’t even control his own body. At some point Satan becomes an anti-hero who doesn’t submit to authority and acts out of his own arrogance and delusion. Bottom line: the character of Satan has influenced many different arguments and viewpoints over time, and I am sure more will come up as long as this work remains part of the cannon.

Also, the amount of literary works which are critical of the church during Milton’s time adds to the belief that the sympathy the reader tends to feel towards Satan is Milton’s way of criticizing the church of Renaissance England.

Now, because I finished working on Paradise Lost a full two weeks ahead of schedule (yea!), I will go ahead and deal with the plays of Christopher Marlowe. After that, I hope to discuss the stories of Frederick Douglass and Harriett Jacobs.

Required Works: The Speeches of Queen Elizabeth I

This should be a relatively short post (I hope), as we won’t be dealing with any major works of literature. Instead, today’s post is on two famous speeches by Queen Elizabeth I of England: The “Speech to the Troops at Tillbury,” and the “Golden Speech.”

Genre

There isn’t much to say for this section as these are both speeches, and very persuasive ones at that. The “Speech to the Troops at Tillbury” was made to inspire courage and a sense of patriotism in the soldiers who were about to face an invasion by the Spanish Armada, while the “Golden Speech” was delivered to Members of the Commons regarding economic issues facing the country.

Themes

In her “Speech to the Troops at Tillbury,” from just the first few lines I can tell that the Queen was extremely careful in choosing her words to achieve the best affect that she was going for. From the outset she makes it perfectly clear that she trusts her people, and manages to separate herself from the image of a tyrant (whether there was fear that her people viewed her as such I am really not sure). She showed up to make the speech wearing a breastplate of armor over her dress, as if she truly was one of her soldiers. And to drive that image home, she asserts that she is more than ready to “live and die amongst you all.” She then addresses the fact that she is but a “week and feeble woman,” but she insists that she has the “heart and stomach of a king,” thus making her adequate for battle and to be a leader. I will point out though that in the last paragraph she makes sure to ever so slightly point out that her lieutenant general will “be in [her] stead” during the actual battle. Fortunately for England, none of this was even necessary as the Spanish Armada had already been defeated.

In the “Golden Speech,” Elizabeth addresses concerns over price-fixing and widespread resentment by first professing ignorance of any misdeeds, and then she wins the members of the House of Commons over with promises and an appeal to their emotions. Once again, Elizabeth chooses her words very carefully. She immediately absolves herself of any responsibility to any misconduct, and then goes on to profess her unending love and respect for her country, her position, and of course, the Members themselves. She repeatedly places any authority she has under God and continually remarks that she would only operate the way God would want her too. Hard to argue with someone who insists they only operate within the power of the Almighty.

History

As mentioned before, the “Speech to the Troops at Tillbury” was made in anticipation of an invasion by the Spanish Armada. The Armada set out on July 12th, but a miscalculation, misfortune, and an attack by the English on July 29 caused the fleet to be dispersed and therefore be defeated. Elizabeth made the speech on the 8th of August, long after there was any need to rouse the troops. But of course, there was no email or texting back then, and news traveled slowly. So no invasion came, England rejoiced, and the defeat served as a propaganda victory for both Elizabeth and Protestant England as many believed it proved God’s favor for a country under the rule of a virgin queen, despite the fact that it was not a turning point in a war that still often favored the Spanish.

During the last years of her reign Elizabeth relied on monopolies rather than asking Parliament for subsidies during the war, but as I mentioned before, this led to price-fixing and agitation in the House of Commons. Elizabeth’s “Golden Speech” is said to mark the end of her reign, which is commonly known as England’s “Golden Era.” In it she announces that this would be her last Parliament, and the speech itself would be reprinted over time whenever England was in danger.

And there you have it. Fairly straightforward and uncomplicated. I can almost guarantee that will be the last time I can say that.

Required Poet: Sir Philip Sidney

This process wasn’t quite as painful as I was expecting it to be, but posting on it will most likely prove challenging as not only will I have to deal with sonnets, but the bulk of the reading for Sir Philip Sidney, when it comes to the M.A. Exam, actually comes from an essay. I almost chose the selections from The Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia for my reading list, since I have actually read the whole thing, but I didn’t want to be bothered with reading Lady Mary Worth, which shares an item number with the Arcadia on the reading list. Either way, I do think my past experience with Sidney helped me when reading his The Defence of Poetry and Astrophel and Stella. Hopefully, I can pass whatever clarity I gained onto you.

Genre

Astrophel and Stella is an English sonnet sequence containing 108 sonnets and 11 songs. For the purpose of the M.A. exam, we fortunately only have to read seven sonnets and two songs. Sidney uses the Petrarchan model for the sonnets, where emotions vary from sonnet to sonnet in an ongoing yet somewhat obscure narrative. He also adopted the Petrarchan rhyme scheme, but through the use of different variations, he breaks free of the strict rhyming requirements of the Italian form.

The Defence of Poetry is an essay in which Sidney addresses the general objections to poetry, such as those of Plato. It is considered to be a significant contribution to the genre of literary criticism. His basic idea is that poetry combines the better parts of history and philosophy, therefore making it more effective than either history or philosophy in pushing the reader on towards virtue. He makes his point with comments on Plato, Aristotle, Edmund Spenser, and many references of the Bible.

Themes

For Astrophel and Stella, Astrophel (aster = star, phil = lover) is the star lover while Stella is the star. Included along with the 15 different variations of the Petrarchan rhyme scheme are the philosophical elements of the Petrarchan model with the poet contemplating love and desire. There are also thoughts from the poet on the art of poetic creation, another Petrarchan element (“Invention, nature’s child, fled step-dame Study’s blows, / And others’ feet still seemed but strangers in my way. / Thus, great with child to speak, and helpless in my throes,/ Bitiny my truant pen, beating myself for spite,/ Fool, said my muse to me, look in thy heart and write.”).

In his The Defence of Poetry, what Sidney is defending is poetry’s nobility and its place within the aristocratic state. His argument is that what makes poetry noble is its ability to move readers to virtuous action (“…but it is that faining notable images of vertues, vices, or what els, with that delightfull teaching, which must be the right describing note to know a Poet by.”). As I mentioned before, he comments on Plato and Aristotle, and actually uses drama as sort of the anti-poetry, since poets never claim to know the truth and do not try to manipulate the reader (according to Sidney), and drama does not deal in “honest civility” and also is not done as skillfully. Sidney also likens the poet to that of a soldier, drawing the conclusion that poetry requires some amount of courage. He also begins the argument with a horse and saddle metaphor and expands the metaphor as he continues with his defense. And of course, it is always good to throw in some references to the Bible to help your case, and when talking about poetry, Sidney goes right to the book of Psalms and its author David (“But even the name of Psalms wil speak for me, which being interpreted, is nothing but Songs: then that it is fully written in meter as all learned Hebritians agree, although the rules be not yet fully found.”).

Another prominent theme in The Defence of Poetry is its general structure as a judicial oration for an actual defense in a trial. He uses forensic rhetoric to state that poetry creates a separate reality, has a long history, and does not lie.

History

It has been suggested that the characters of Astrophel and Stella are based on Sidney himself and Penelope Rich, the wife of a courtier. Other critics, or course, reject this idea and believe Sidney just created a fictional persona for this set of sonnets. What is most notable about the work is that in it Sidney moved away from the strict Italian Petrarchan form and gave his distinctly English poems more freedom and variation. He took the key features of the Italian model and organized them to better for England.

It is believed that The Defence of Poetry was somewhat motivated by Stephen Gosson and his play The School of Abuse, which Gosson used to attack Sidney and imaginative literature in 1579. Its influence on the genre of literary criticism can be seen throughout history – from Samuel Taylor Coleridge, to William Wordsworth, and even John Donne.

From here I would usually begin going into each individual sonnet from Astrophel and Stella, but I decided to dgo against that since they all contribute to one larger story and we are only reading seven non-sequential pieces and two songs. Also, to be completely honest, I am not sure what more I could say about them that would be at all helpful. The best thing to do at this point would be to just read them. And if you do gain anymore insights I do entreat you to please share them. We’ll need all the help we can get…

Optional Work: Titus Andronicus



A leather journal cover
based on Titus Andronicus
by Immortal Longings.
Copyright 2008



And finally we have arrived at the last of the three optional Shakespeare that made it onto my M.A. reading list, and the last of the six Shakespeare plays that I will be dealing with for the purpose of this blog. Titus Andronicus is one of my absolute favorite of Shakespeare’s plays, and after I first read it I realized I must have a thing for revenge stories because this work is bloody and so gory, both things I usually don’t go for, that there had to be some other reason why I love it so much. I will definitely enjoy writing about this work and I may actually like discussing it when it comes up during my M.A. exam.

Genre

This play is unashamedly tragic. I mean just awful stuff happens all the time to both innocent and thoroughly evil people. Not only are people killed, but people are also raped, severely dismembered only to be killed later, and one character even unknowingly consumes the remains of her children. It is by far Shakespeare’s bloodiest work and it is believed among many to be his earliest tragedy. However, although it is his most gruesome work, it does not stand alone as his only revenge tragedy. Other plays of Shakespeare’s that can fit this category are Hamlet, Macbeth, and even Julius Caesar.

Unlike tragedies such as Romeo and Juliet, Titus Andronicus does not shift from comedy to tragedy, but remains a revenge tragedy throughout (with people like me still laughing at certain part…yes, I have issues). It cannot be considered a history play because while it contains the names of real historical people and events, they are taken from different points in Roman history and put together in one play.

In total there are 14 killings, nine of which occur onstage, six people with body parts chopped off in some sense, one rape (well, one person raped, but possibly two or three times over), one live burial, and once act of cannibalism. One of my theories as to why this play isn’t performed much not only has to do with the mass amount of violence that occurs onstage, but also the fact that oftentimes there are so many dead bodies on the stage that it would be exceedingly difficult for the actors to work around them. It would be like actors having to do the final scene in Hamlet with dead bodies everywhere, but only this time for the entire two-hour play. And how do you depict a woman who has had both hands chopped off and her tongue ripped out without freaking out the audience? Icky…

Themes

Revenge, blood, death, destruction, and chaos. Just a massive amount of violence to occur on a live stage.

The story of Procne and Philomela that is found in Ovid’s Metamorphoses has been closely linked to Shakespeare’s story of Titus Andronicus. In Ovid’s telling, Procne avenges the dismemberment of her sister Philomela whose tongue is cut out after she is raped by Procne’s husband. Procne proceeds to then kill her own son and feed him to her husband. Yikes… Shakespeare has violence-hungry Titus (who by this moment in the play has lost his mind) revenge his daughter, Lavinia, who has been raped by Tamora’s two sons and had her tongue ripped out, by killing said sons and feeding their remains to their mother by means of a baked pie. This, however, is just one of the many end products of a long cycle of revenge that started at the very beginning of the play when Titus comes home from winning a war against the Goths, the people that Tamora was formerly queen of. Not only has Titus defeated Tamora’s homeland in battle, but his first order of business upon his return is to kill Tamora’s oldest son by lopping off his arms and legs. Tamora then (with the help of Aaron, her Moorish boyfriend on the side) proceeds to have Titus’ two sons falsely charged of murdering the Emperor’s brother, the punishment for which is death (by beheading). But this isn’t enough - Aaron wants Titus to needlessly cut off his hand in order to add insult to injury. So he tells Titus that the judges might consider letting his sons go if he cuts of his hand. So Titus, like any loving father, has his hand cut off, but his sons are beheaded anyway. And this is what sets him off to kill Tamora’s sons, bake the pie, and on and on it goes. Tamora is also the one who has her sons rape Lavinia.

And it isn’t so much that violent things happen in the play that make Titus Andronicus so horrible, but the fact that the acts are so savage and Shakespeare handles them in such a matter of fact way is I think what gets us. In Romeo and Juliet, after Mercutio is stabbed he continues to talk for what feels like forever (seriously, what is that?). In Titus Andronicus, the one-line stage directions simply say that people are stabbed or killed, and then you never hear from them again, and have to assume that their body is just laying there awkwardly on the stage. The one death that stands out in my mind as the most needless is when Aaron kills the nurse who has brought him his newly born child simply because he (quickly) decided that one too many people know about it, and since she is standing there, he simply kills her. No appeal, no reprieve.

Also, the ridiculous amount of violence goes well with how ridiculously evil Aaron is. Sure, Tamora is evil too, and Titus is no saint, but at least Tamora is driven by the death of her oldest son early in the play. Aaron makes it very clear that he enjoys doing evil and that his only regret in life is that he couldn’t do a little more. He also states that if he did ever do one good deed in all of his life, then it is the one thing he repents of from his very soul. And as much as the audience hates Aaron, there really aren’t any other characters that they can relate to. Lucius may be as close as we can get, but he isn’t onstage enough, and while we do feel incredibly bad for Lavinia, it is still difficult to identify with her because of the insane nature of her dismemberment – she can’t talk because she has no tongue, and she can’t even make hand gestures because she is left with two stumps at the end of her arms.

At the end of the play, the only survivors are Lucius (Titus’ oldest son), Marcus Andronicus (Titus’ brother), young Lucius (Lucius’ son), Aaron, and Aaron’s infant son, and even not al of them will survive very long. In the final scene, Aaron is being taken away to be buried alive chest-deep and left to die of thirst and starvation. Oddly enough, after reading all of the horrifying violence of the previous five acts, this death seems incredibly tame.

History

Not at all surprisingly, Titus Andronicus lost popularity during the Victorian era because if its incredible amount of gore. It is Shakespeare’s most violent play and possibly his most criticized. The lurid amount of violence, along with the lack of inspired verse, has also caused many critics to doubt whether it was Shakespeare who actually wrote it. Even so, it was incredibly popular when it first came out; much like Christopher Marlowe’s Tamburlaine was despite its violence. In fact, some believe that Shakespeare was doing a parody of a Marlowe play because that is the only way they can explain why he would have written such a violent work.

So that completes the series on Shakespeare. Next week, I will most likely cover Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, another optional work from my list that has made it onto my list of favorite novels. It is nothing like Titus Andronicus, which is a good thing. As much as I like Titus Andronicus, it isn’t the kind of thing we need to be exposed too very often.